Dalam Kajian mengenai Pendidikan Kewarganegaraan, terdapat tiga istilah teknis yang banyak digunakan, yakni civics, civic education, dan citizenship education. Istilah civics merupakan istilah yang paling tua sejak digunakan pertama kalinya oleh Chreshore pada tahun 1886 dalam Somantri 198962 untuk menunjukkan the science of citizenship yang isinya antara lain mempelajari hubungan antar warga negara dan hubungan antara warga negara dengan negara. Saat ini istilah itu masih dipakai sebagai nama mata pelajaran yang berdiri sendiri atau terintegrasi dalam kurikulum sekolah dasar di Perancis dan Singapura; dan dalam kurikulum sekolah lanjutan di Perancis, Italia, Hongaria, Jepang, Netherlands, Singapura, Spanyol, dan USA Kerr,1999152. Di Indonesia istilah civics pernah digunakan dalam kurikulum SMP dan SMA tahun 1962, kurikulum SD tahun 1968, dan kurikulum PPSP IKIP Bandung tahun 1973. Mulai pada tahun 1900-an di USA diperkenalkan istilah citizenship education dan civic education yang digunakan secara bertukar-pakai, untuk menunjukkan program pendidikan karakter, etika dan kebajikan Berst1960167 atau pengembangan fungsi dan peran politik dari warga negara dan pengembangan kualitas pribadi Somantri, 198974. Sedangkan Allen 196089 dan NCSS Somantri, 197227 menggunakan istilah citizenship education dalam arti yang lebih luas, yakni sebagai produk keseluruhan program pendidikan atau all positive influences yang datang dari proses pendidikan formal dan informal. Kini istilah civic education lebih banyak digunakan di USA serta beberapa negara baru di Eropa timur yang mendapat pembinaan profesional dari Center for Civic Education dan Universitas mitra kerjanya di USA, untuk menunjukkan suatu program pendidikan di sekolah yang terintegrasi atau suatu mata pelajaran yang berdiri sendiri. Sedangkan di Indonesia istilah civic education masih dipakai untuk label mata kuliah di Jurusan atau Progran Studi PPKN dan nama LSM Center for Indonesian Civic Education. Istilah civic education cenderung digunakan secara spesifik sebagai mata pelajaran dalam konteks pendidikan formal. Sedangkan istilah citizenship education cenderung digunakan dalam dua pengertian. Pertama, digunakan di UK dalam pengertian yang lebih luas sebagai overarching concept yang di dalamnya termasuk civic education sebagai unsur utama Cogan,1999; Kerr 1999; dan QCA1999 disamping program pendidikaan kewarganegaraan di luar pendidikan formal seperti site of citizenship atau situs kewarganegaraan, seperti juga dikonsepsikan sebelum itu oleh Alleh 196284 dan NCSS 197234. Kedua, digunakan di USA, terutama oleh NCSS, dalam pengertian sebagai the essence or core atau inti dari social studies Barr et. all 1978; NCSS 1985;1994. Di Indonesia istilah citizenship education belum pernah digunakan dalam tataran formal instrumentasi pendidikan, kecuali sebagai wacana akademis di kalangan komunitas ilmiah pendidikan IPS. Sebagai batasan penulis menerjemahkan civic education dan citizenship education ke dalam istilah yang sama namun berbeda dalam cara penulisannya. Istilah civic education diterjemahkan menjadi Pendidikan Kewarganegaraan memakai huruf besar di awal dan citizenship education diterjemahkan menjadi pendidikan kewarganegaraan semuanya dengan huruf kecil. Istilah Pendidikan Kewarganegaraan PKn menunjuk pada suatu mata pelajaran, sedangkan pendidikan kewarganegaraan PKn menunjuk pada kerangka konseptual sistemik program pendidikan untuk kewarganegaraan yang demokratis. Konsep pendidikan kewarganegaraan disebut juga sistem pendidikan kewarganegaraan spkn/SPKn yang dapat ditulis dengan semuanya huruf besar atau huruf kecil. Cogan 199978, dalam artikelnya Developing the Civic Society The Role of Civic Education, mengartikan civic education sebagai "...the foundational course work in school designed to prepare young citizens for an active role in their communities in their adult lives". Sedangkan citizenship education atau education for citizenship oleh Cogan 199979 digunakan sebagai istilah yang memiliki pengertian yang lebih luas yang mencakup "...both these in-school experiences as well as out-of school or non-formal/informal learning which takes place in the family, the religious organization, community organizations, the media, etc which help to shape the totality of the citizen". Quigley 200015, Executive Director Center for Civic Education, dalam seminar yang diselenggarakan oleh CICED di Bandung menyatakan bahwa “During the 1990s there appears to have been a rapidly growing interest throughout the world in the development and implementation of educational programs in schools that are designed to help young people become competent and responsible citizens in democratic political sistems. This interest has been most directly focused on civic education programs at the pre-collegiate level although attention is increasingly being focused on students in colleges and universities and in some places in community or adult education.” Patrick 2005134, sebagai Directur Eksekutif “Social Studies Development Center” Indiana University di Bloomington, telah mengidentifikasi 8 trend yang mempunyai potensi besar untuk mempengaruhi pendidikan kewarganegaraan dalam demokrasi konstitusional sebagai berikut Trend 1 Conceptualization of civic education in terms of three interrelated Trend 2 Sistematic teaching of fundamental ideas or core concepts. Trend 3 Analysis of case studies. Trend 4 Development of decision-making skills. Trend 5 Comparative and international analysis of government and citizenship. Trend 6 Development of participatory skills and civic virtues through cooperative learning activities. Trend 7 Active learning of civic knowledge, skills, and virtues. Trend 8 The conjoining of content and process in teaching and learning of civic knowledge, skills, and virtues. Pendidikan Kewarganegaraan PKn atau Civic Education didesain dalam kurikulum sebagai implementasi amanat dari Undang-Undang Nomor 20 Tahun 2003 tentang Sistem Pendidikan Nasional. Di dalam pasal 37 Ayat 1 dinyatakan bahwa kurikulum pendidikan dasar dan menengah wajib memuat; pendidikan agama, pendidikan kewarganegaraan, bahasa, matematika, ilmu pengetahuan alam, ilmu pengetahuan sosial, seni dan budaya, pendidikan jasmani dan olah raga, keterampilan/kejuruan, dan muatan lokal. Selanjutnya dalam Ayat 2 dinyatakan juga bahwa kurikulum pendidikan tinggi wajib pula memuat; pendidikan agama, pendidikan kewarganegaraan, dan bahasa. Penegasan tersebut merupakan dasar yuridis bahwa pendidikan kewarganegaraan wajib dimuat dalam kurikulum, baik untuk pendidikan dasar dan menengah maupun pendidikan tinggi. Hal itu menunjukkan bahwa pendidikan kewarganegaraan memiliki peranan yang strategis untuk “membentuk peserta didik menjadi manusia yang memiliki rasa kebangsaan dan cinta tanah air.” Banyak isu dan tantangan berkaitan dengan pengembangan dan implementasi PKn. Sebagian berupa isu dan tantangan universal dan sebagian lagi berupa isu dan tantangan sesuai dengan konteks spesifik masyarakat Indonesia yang multikultur. Dalam tantangan universal, Pendidikan Kewarganegaraan dihadapkan pada kekuatan berbagai pengaruh masyarakat internasional yang seringkali sulit untuk dihindari, seperti berkenaan dengan percaturan politik, ekonomi, sosial-budaya, pertahanan, dan keamanan global. Sedangkan isu dan tantangan spesifik Indonesia antara lain yaitu a hancurnya atau lemahnya nilai demokrasi dalam masyarakat; b memudarnya nilai-nilai kehidupan baik dalam keluarga maupun dalam masyarakat; c meningkatnya praktek KKN dalam penyelenggaraan pemerintahan; d kerusakan sistem dan kehidupan ekonomi; kualitas rendah dan disparitas tinggi dalam pendidikan; dan e pelanggaran terhadap nilai-nilai kemanusiaan. Untuk mengantisipasi isu dan tantangan di atas, baik yang bersifat universal maupun spesifik keindonesiaan tersebut diperlukan muatan Pendidikan Kewarganegaan yang tangguh, dinamis, dan antisipatif. Banks menyatakan alasan Pendidikan Kewarganegaraan seperti itu karena “Because of growing ethnic, cultural, racial, and religious diversity troughout the world, citizenship education needs to be changed in substantial ways to prepare students to function effectively in the 21st century. Banks, 2001 6 Pendidikan kewarganegaraan dalam pengertian sebagai citizenship education, secara substantif dan pedagogis didesain untuk mengembangkan warga negara yang cerdas dan baik untuk seluruh jalur dan jenjang pendidikan. Sampai saat ini bidang itu sudah menjadi bagian inheren dari instrumentasi serta praksis pendidikan nasional Indonesia dalam lima status. Pertama, sebagai mata pelajaran di sekolah. Kedua, sebagai mata kuliah di perguruan tinggi. Ketiga,sebagai salah satu cabang pendidikan disiplin ilmu pengetahuan sosial dalam kerangka program pendidikan guru. Keempat, sebagai program pendidikan politik yang dikemas dalam bentuk Penataran Pedoman Penghayatan dan Pengamalan Pancasila Penataran P4 atau sejenisnya yang pernah dikelola oleh Pemerintah sebagai suatu crash program. Kelima, sebagai kerangka konseptual dalam bentuk pemikiran individual dan kelompok pakar terkait, yang dikembangkan sebagai landasan dan kerangka berpikir mengenai pendidikan kewarganegaraan dalam status pertama, kedua, ketiga, dan keempat. Dalam status pertama, yakni sebagai mata pelajaran di sekolah, pendidikan kewarganegaraan telah mengalami perkembangan yang fluktuatif, baik dalam kemasan maupun substansinya. Pengalaman tersebut di atas menunjukkan bahwa sampai dengan tahun 1975, di Indonesia kelihatannya terdapat kerancuan dan ketidakajekan dalam konseptualisasi civics, pendidikan kewargaannegaraan, dan pendidikan IPS. Hal itu tampak dalam penggunaan ketiga istilah itu secara bertukar-pakai. Selanjutnya, dalam Kurikulum tahun 1975 untuk semua jenjang persekolahan yang diberlakukan secara bertahap mulai tahun 1976 dan kemudian disempurnakan pada tahun 1984, sebagai pengganti mata pelajaran Pendidikan Kewarganegaraan mulai diperkenalkan mata pelajaran Pendidikan Moral Pancasila PMP yang berisikan materi dan pengalaman belajar mengenai Pedoman Penghayatan dan Pengamalan Pancasila P4 atau "Eka Prasetia Pancakarsa". Perubahan itu dilakukan untuk mewadahi misi pendidikan yang diamanatkan oleh Ketetapan MPR No. II/MPR/1978 tentang Pedoman Penghayatan dan Pengamalan Pancasila atau P4 Depdikbud1975a, 1975b, 1975c. Mata pelajaran PMP ini bersifat wajib mulai dari kelas I SD kelas III SMA/Sekolah Kejuruan dan keberadaannya terus dipertahankan dalam Kurikulum tahun 1984, yang pada dasarnya merupakan penyempurnaan Kurikulum tahun 1975. Selanjutnya, di dalam Undang-Undang No 2/1989 tentang Pokok-Pokok Sistem Pendidikan Nasional UUSPN, antara lain Pasal 39, digariskan adanya Pendidikan Pancasila dan Pendidikan Kewarganegaraan sebagai bahan kajian wajib kurikulum semua jalur, jenis, dan jenjang pendidikan. Sebagai implikasinya, dalam Kurikulum persekolahan tahun 1994 diperkenalkan mata pelajaran Pendidikan Pancasila dan Kewarganegaraan PPKn yang berisikan materi dan pengalaman belajar yang diorganisasikan secara spiral atas dasar butir-butir nilai yang secara konseptual terkandung dalam Pancasila. Yang dimaksudkan pengorganisasian materi pelajaran secara spiral adalah memiliki pokok kajian yang sama pada jenjang yang berbeda, akan tetapi dengan tingkat kajian dan keluasan bahasan yang berbeda, sesuai dengan taraf berpikir peserta didik. Bila dianalisis dengan cermat, ternyata baik istilah yang dipakai, isi yang dipilih dan diorganisasikan, dan strategi pembelajaran yang digunakan untuk mata pelajaran Civics atau PKN atau PMP atau PPKn yang berkembang secara fluktuatif hampir empat dasa warsa 1962-1998 itu, menunjukkan indikasi bahwa terjadi ketidakajekan dalam kerangka berpikir, yang sekaligus mencerminkan telah terjadinya krisis konseptual. Hal ini berdampak pada terjadinya krisis operasional kurikuler. Menurut Kuhn 197027 krisis atau dislocation yang bersifat konseptual tersebut tercermin dalam ketidakajekan konsep seperti civics tahun 1962 yang tampil dalam bentuk indoktrinasi politik; civics tahun 1968 sebagai unsur dari pendidikan kewargaan negara yang bernuansa pendidikan ilmu pengetahuan sosial; PKN tahun 1969 yang tampil dalam bentuk pembelajaran konstitusi dan ketetapan MPRS; PKN tahun 1973 yang diidentikkan dengan pembelajaran IPS; PMP tahun 1975 dan 1984 yang tampil menggantikan PKN dengan isi pembahasan P4; dan PPKn 1994 sebagai penggabungan bahan kajian Pendidikan Pancasila dan Kewarganegaraan yang tampil dalam bentuk pembelajaran konsep nilai yang disaripatikan dari Pancasila dan P4. Krisis operasional tercermin pada terjadinya perubahan isi dan format buku pelajaran, penataran guru yang tidak artikulatif, dan fenomena kelas yang belum banyak bergeser dari penekanan pada proses kognitif memorisasi fakta dan konsep. Tampaknya semua itu terjadi karena memang sekolah masih tetap diperlakukan sebagai socio-political institution, dan masih belum efektifnya pelaksanaan metode pembelajaran secara konseptual, karena belum adanya suatu paradigma pendidikan kewarganegaraan yang secara ajek diterima dan dipakai secara nasional sebagai rujukan konseptual dan operasional. Kini pada era reformasi pasca jatuhnya sistem politik Orde Baru yang diikuti dengan tumbuhnya komitmen baru kearah perwujudan cita-cita dan nilai demokrasi konstitusional yang lebih murni, keberadaan dan jati diri mata pelajaran PPKn kembali dipertanyakan secara kritis. Dalam kepustakaan asing ada dua istilah teknis yang dapat diterjemahkan menjadi pendidikan kewargnegaraan yakni civic education dan citizenship Education. Cogan 199839 mengartikan civic education sebagai "...the foundational course work in school designed to prepare young citizens for an active role in their communities in their adult lives". Atau suatu mata pelajaran dasar di sekolah yang dirancang untuk mempersiapkan warga negara muda, agar kelak setelah dewasa dapat berperan aktif dalam masyarakatn-ya. Sedangkan citizenship education atau education for citizenship oleh Cogan digunakan sebagai istilah yang memiliki pengertian yang lebih luas yang mencakup "...both these in-school experiences as well as out-of school or non-formal/informal learning which takes place in the family, the religious organization, community organizations, the media,etc which help to shape the Dalam tulisan ini istilah pendidikan kewarganegaraan pada dasarnya digunakan dalam pengertian yang luas seperti "citizenship education" atau "education for citizenship" yang mencakup pendidikan kewarganegaraan di dalam lembaga pendidikan formal dalam hal ini di sekolah dan dalam program pendidikan guru dan di luar sekolah baik yang berupa program penataran atau program lainnya yang sengaja dirancang atau sebagai dampak pengiring dari program lain yang berfungsi memfasilitasi proses pendewasaan atau pematangan sebagai warga negara Indonesia yang cerdas dan baik. Di samping itu, juga konsep pendidikan kewarganegaraan digunakan sebagai nama suatu bidang kajian ilmiah yang melandasi dan sekaligus menaungi pendidikan kewarganegaran sebagai program pendidikan demokrasi. Karakteristik suatu mata pelajaran perlu diidentifikasi dalam rangka pengembangan silabus berbasis kompetensi dari mata pelajaran tersebut. Struktur keilmuan suatu mata pelajaran berkenaan dengan dimensi standar kompetensi, kompetensi dasar, dan materi pokok atau struktur keilmuan mata pelajaran tersebut. Hasil identifikasi karakteristik mata pelajaran tersebut bermanfaat sebagai acuan dalam mengembangkan silabus dan rencana pembelajaran. Sebagaimana lazimnya suatu bidang studi yang diajarkan di sekolah, materi keilmuan mata pelajaran Kewarganegaraan mencakup dimensi pengetahuan knowledge, keterampilan skills, dan nilai values. Sejalan dengan ide pokok mata pelajaran Kewarganegaraan yang ingin membentuk warga negara yang ideal yaitu warga negara yang memiliki keimanan dan ketakwaan terhadap Tuhan Yang Maha Esa, pengetahuan, keterampilan, dan nilai-nilai sesuai dengan konsep dan prinsip-prinsip Kewarganegaraan. Pada gilirannya, warga negara yang baik tersebut diharapkan dapat membantu terwujudnya masyarakat yang demokratis konstitusional. Berbagai negara di dunia memiliki kriteria masing-masing tentang warga negara yang baik, yang sangat berhubungan dengan pandangan hidup bangsa yang bersangkutan yang tercermin dalam konstitusinya. Bagi bangsa Indonesia warga negara yang baik tersebut tentu saja adalah warga negara yang dapat menjalankan perannya dalam hubungannya dengan sesama warga negara dan hubungannya dengan negara sesuai dengan ketentuan-ketentuan konstitusi negara Undang-Undang Dasar Negara Kesatuan Republik Indonesia tahun 1945. Sehubungan dengan itu, mata pelajaran Kewarganegaraan mencakup dimensi pengetahuan, keterampilan, dan nilai-nilai kewarganegaraan, seperti nampak pada berikut. Gambar 7. Struktur Keilmuan Mata Pelajaran Kewarganegaraan Winataputra, 200424 Visualisasi gambar 6 menunjukkan sebuah kompleksitas dari karakteristik Pendidikan Kewarganegaraan. Tiga dimensi yang merupakan satu kesatuan tidak terpisahkan dari Pendidikan Kewarganegaraan, yaitu dimensi pengetahuan kewarganegaraan civic knowledge, dimensi keterampilan civic skills, dan dimensi nilai civic values. Ketiga dimensi ini secara sinergis membangun core dari PKn yaitu warga negara yang berpengetahuan, terampil, dan berkepribadian. Dimensi nilai akan memberikan kontribusi rasa percaya diri dan komitmen dari warga negara, dimensi keterampilan kewarganegaraan memberikan kontribusi terbangunnya komitmen dan kopetensi kewarganegaraan, sedangkan dimensi pengetahuan Komitmen Percaya diri Keterampilan kewarganegaraan Kompeten Pengetahuan kewarganegaraan Nilai-nilai kewarganegaraan Warga negara yang berpengetahuan, terampil, dan berkepribadian kewarganegaraan akan memberikan kontribusi tumbuh kembangnya kompetensi dan rasa percaya diri. Oleh karena itu, warga negara yang memahami dan menguasai pengetahuan kewarganegaraan civics knowledge dan keterampilan kewarganegaraan civics skills akan menjadi seorang warga negara yang berkompeten. Warga negara yang memahami dan menguasai pengetahuan kewarganegaraan civics knowledge serta nilai-nilai kewarganegaraan civics values akan menjadi seorang warga negara yang memiliki rasa percaya diri, sedangkan warga negara yang telah memahami dan menguasai keterampilan kewarganegaraan civics skills serta nilai-nilai kewarganegaraan civics values akan menjadi seorang warga negara yang memiliki komitmen kuat. Kemudian warga negara yang memahami dan menguasai pengetahuan kewarganegaraan civics knowledge, memahami dan menguasai keterampilan kewarganegaraan civics skills, serta memahami dan menguasai nilai-nilai kewarganegaraan civics values akan menjadi seorang warga negara yang berpengetahuan, terampil dan berkepribadian. Dimensi pengetahuan kewarganegaraan civics knowledge mencakup bidang politik, hukum dan moral. Secara lebih terperinci, materi pengetahuan kewarganegaraan meliputi pengetahuan tentang prinsip-prinsip dan proses demokrasi, lembaga pemerintah dan non pemerintah, identitas nasional, pemerintahan berdasar hukum rule of law dan peradilan yang bebas dan tidak memihak, konstitusi, sejarah nasional, hak dan kewajiban warga negara, hak asasi manusia, hak sipil, dan hak politik. Dimensi keterampilan kewarganegaraan civics skills meliputi keterampilan partisipasi dalam kehidupan berbangsa dan bernegara, misalnya berperan serta aktif mewujudkan masyarakat madani civil society, keterampilan mempengaruhi dan monitoring jalannya pemerintahan, dan proses pengambilan keputusan politik, keterampilan memecahkan masalah-masalah sosial, keterampilan mengadakan koalisi, kerja sama, dan mengelola konflik. Dimensi nilai-nilai kewarganegaraan civics values mencakup antara lain percaya diri, komitmen, penguasaan atas nilai religius, norma dan moral luhur, nilai keadilan, demokratis, toleransi, kebebasan individual, kebebasan berbicara, kebebasan pers, kebebasan berserikat dan berkumpul, dan perlindungan terhadap minoritas. Mata pelajaran Kewarganegaraan merupakan bidang kajian interdisipliner, artinya materi keilmuan kewarganegaraan dijabarkan dari beberapa disiplin ilmu antara lain ilmu politik, ilmu negara, ilmu tata negara, hukum, sejarah, ekonomi, moral, dan filsafat. Kewarganegaraan dipandang sebagai mata pelajaran yang memegang peranan penting dalam membentuk warga negara yang baik sesuai dengan falsafah bangsa dan konstitusi negara, sekali gus untuk menjawab tantangan perkembangan demokrasi dan integrasi nasional. Oleh karena itu kehidupan demokratis pun di lingkungan sekolah dapat dilatihkan melalui mata pelajaran ini. Yamamoto 2007197 menegaskan bahwa ”post-independence, many countries were confronted with the fact that modern democracy and national integration could not progress smoothly; as a result, a number of criticisms were conducted both inside and outside this schoo”. Dengan memperhatikan visi dan misi mata pelajaran Kewarganegaraan yaitu membentuk warga negara yang baik, maka selain mencakup dimensi pengetahuan, karakteristik mata pelajaran Kewarganegaraan ditandai dengan pemberian penekanan pada dimensi sikap dan keterampilan civics. Jadi, pertama-tama seorang warga negara perlu memahami dan menguasai pengetahuan yang lengkap tentang konsep dan prinsip-prinsip politik, hukum, dan moral civics. Setelah menguasai pengetahuan, selanjutnya seorang warga negara diharapkan memiliki sikap atau karakter sebagai warga negara yang baik, dan memiliki keterampilan kewarganegaraan dalam bentuk keterampilan berpartisipasi dalam kehidupan berbangsa dan bernegara serta keterampilan menentukan posisi diri, serta kecakapan hidup life skills. Banks menegaskan mengenai pentingnya warga negara yang memiliki pemahaman, sikap, dan keterampilan kewarganegaraan, sebagai berikut “Citizens in the new century need the knowledge, attitudes, and skills required to function in their ethnic and cultural communities and beyond their cultural borders and to participate in the construction of a national civic culture that is a moral and just community that embodies democratic
Hakikat Fungsi, dan Tujuan Pendidikan Kewarganegaraan di SD Prof. Dr. H. Udin S. Winataputra, M.A. odul ini merupakan materi awal mata kuliah Pembelajaran PKn di SD (PDGK4201). Tentunya bagi Anda tidaklah asing terhadap istilah pendidikan kewarganegaraan karena istilah itu merupakan salah satu muatan
SosokPendidikan Kewarganegaraan (Civic atau Citizenship Education) yang demikian memang sering muncul di sejumlah negara, khususnya negara-negara berkembang termasuk Indonesia seperti yang
Perbedaan civic education dengan citizenship education. 4, mengemukakan bahwa citizenship education or civics education di definisikan sebagai berikut Sebagai akademisi pkn kita harus memahami dulu makna dari . Nation character is needed for. Materi pendidikan kewargaan civic education terdiri dari tiga materi . Kutipan Quote dari Mantan Presiden Indonesia Ke-6 Bapak from Effective civic education for democratic citizenship. Cakupan yang luas ini maka citizenship education meliputi di dalamnya pendidikan kewarganegaraan dalam arti khusus civic education. Pengertian civics, civic education dan citizenship education. Analisa perbedaan civic education dan citizenship education. Civic education adalah mata pelajaran bagi siswa sekolah yang membicarakan . Perbedaan civic education dengan citizenship education. Nation character is needed for. Materi pendidikan kewargaan civic education terdiri dari tiga materi . Civic education adalah mata pelajaran bagi siswa sekolah yang membicarakan . Materi pendidikan kewargaan civic education terdiri dari tiga materi . Gross and zeleny menyatakan bahwa pengertian civics lebih menekankan pada teori dan praktik pemerintah demokrasi sedangkan dalam arti luas lebih . Analisa perbedaan civic education dan citizenship education. Civic education adalah mata pelajaran bagi siswa sekolah yang membicarakan . Menurut kerr winataputra dan budimansyah, 2007 Karena hakikat ppkn merupakan civic education atau citizenship education pendidikan kewarganegaraan versi indonesia. Citizenship education adalah pengertian pendidikan kewarganegaraan yang generic. 4, mengemukakan bahwa citizenship education or civics education di definisikan sebagai berikut Civic education adalah suatu mata pelajaran dasar di sekolah yang dirancang untuk mempersiapkan . To the process of democracy in indonesia, civic education. Nation character is needed for. Sebagai akademisi pkn kita harus memahami dulu makna dari . Effective civic education for democratic citizenship. Gross and zeleny menyatakan bahwa pengertian civics lebih menekankan pada teori dan praktik pemerintah demokrasi sedangkan dalam arti luas lebih . Pengertian civics, civic education dan citizenship education. Sebagai akademisi pkn kita harus memahami dulu makna dari . Menurut kerr winataputra dan budimansyah, 2007 Effective civic education for democratic citizenship. PPT - PENDIDIKAN KEWARGANEGARAAN PowerPoint Presentation from Gross and zeleny menyatakan bahwa pengertian civics lebih menekankan pada teori dan praktik pemerintah demokrasi sedangkan dalam arti luas lebih . Analisa perbedaan civic education dan citizenship education. Materi pendidikan kewargaan civic education terdiri dari tiga materi . Karena hakikat ppkn merupakan civic education atau citizenship education pendidikan kewarganegaraan versi indonesia. Menurut kerr winataputra dan budimansyah, 2007 To the process of democracy in indonesia, civic education. Civics education is needed to create good citizens whose have nation character. Civic education adalah suatu mata pelajaran dasar di sekolah yang dirancang untuk mempersiapkan . Karena hakikat ppkn merupakan civic education atau citizenship education pendidikan kewarganegaraan versi indonesia. Karena hakikat ppkn merupakan civic education atau citizenship education pendidikan kewarganegaraan versi indonesia. 4, mengemukakan bahwa citizenship education or civics education di definisikan sebagai berikut Civic education adalah mata pelajaran bagi siswa sekolah yang membicarakan . Analisa perbedaan civic education dan citizenship education. Menurut kerr winataputra dan budimansyah, 2007 Sebagai akademisi pkn kita harus memahami dulu makna dari . Civic education adalah suatu mata pelajaran dasar di sekolah yang dirancang untuk mempersiapkan . Cakupan yang luas ini maka citizenship education meliputi di dalamnya pendidikan kewarganegaraan dalam arti khusus civic education. Materi pendidikan kewargaan civic education terdiri dari tiga materi . Perbedaan civic education dengan citizenship education. Pengertian civics, civic education dan citizenship education. Citizenship education adalah pengertian pendidikan kewarganegaraan yang generic. Nation character is needed for. Karena hakikat ppkn merupakan civic education atau citizenship education pendidikan kewarganegaraan versi indonesia. Civics education is needed to create good citizens whose have nation character. Citizenship education adalah pengertian pendidikan kewarganegaraan yang generic. Materi pendidikan kewargaan civic education terdiri dari tiga materi . Nation character is needed for. PPT - PENDIDIKAN KEWARGANEGARAAN PowerPoint Presentation from Sebagai akademisi pkn kita harus memahami dulu makna dari . Effective civic education for democratic citizenship. Civics education is needed to create good citizens whose have nation character. Materi pendidikan kewargaan civic education terdiri dari tiga materi . Cakupan yang luas ini maka citizenship education meliputi di dalamnya pendidikan kewarganegaraan dalam arti khusus civic education. Nation character is needed for. Civic education adalah suatu mata pelajaran dasar di sekolah yang dirancang untuk mempersiapkan . Menurut kerr winataputra dan budimansyah, 2007 Menurut kerr winataputra dan budimansyah, 2007 Effective civic education for democratic citizenship. Nation character is needed for. Cakupan yang luas ini maka citizenship education meliputi di dalamnya pendidikan kewarganegaraan dalam arti khusus civic education. Menurut kerr winataputra dan budimansyah, 2007 To the process of democracy in indonesia, civic education. Citizenship education adalah pengertian pendidikan kewarganegaraan yang generic. Perbedaan civic education dengan citizenship education. Civic education adalah suatu mata pelajaran dasar di sekolah yang dirancang untuk mempersiapkan . Gross and zeleny menyatakan bahwa pengertian civics lebih menekankan pada teori dan praktik pemerintah demokrasi sedangkan dalam arti luas lebih . Civic education adalah mata pelajaran bagi siswa sekolah yang membicarakan . Pengertian civics, civic education dan citizenship education. 4, mengemukakan bahwa citizenship education or civics education di definisikan sebagai berikut Karena hakikat ppkn merupakan civic education atau citizenship education pendidikan kewarganegaraan versi indonesia. Perbedaan Civic Education Dan Citizenship Education / CARA MEMBUAT CV DALAM BAHASA INGGRIS DENGAN BAIK DAN BENAR - Civic education adalah suatu mata pelajaran dasar di sekolah yang dirancang untuk mempersiapkan .. Civics education is needed to create good citizens whose have nation character. Menurut kerr winataputra dan budimansyah, 2007 Civic education adalah suatu mata pelajaran dasar di sekolah yang dirancang untuk mempersiapkan . Karena hakikat ppkn merupakan civic education atau citizenship education pendidikan kewarganegaraan versi indonesia. Sebagai akademisi pkn kita harus memahami dulu makna dari .PengertianPendidikan Kewarganegaraan – Berawal dari istilah “Civic Education” diterjemahkan ke dalam bahasa Indonesia menjadi Pendidikan Kewargaan dan akhirnya menjadi Pendidikan Kewarganegaraan. Istilah “Pendidikan Kewargaan” diwakili oleh Azra dan Tim ICCE (Indonesia Center for Civic Education) dari Universitas Islam Negeri Jakarta, sebagai67% found this document useful 3 votes6K views16 pagesCopyright© © All Rights ReservedAvailable FormatsDOCX, PDF, TXT or read online from ScribdShare this documentDid you find this document useful?67% found this document useful 3 votes6K views16 pagesPerbedaan Civic Education Dengan Citizenship EducationJump to Page You are on page 1of 16 You're Reading a Free Preview Pages 6 to 14 are not shown in this preview. Reward Your CuriosityEverything you want to Anywhere. Any Commitment. Cancel anytime. Civicsmerupakan cabang ilmu politik. Stanley E. Dimond berpendapat bahwa civics adalah citizenship mempunyai dua makna dalam aktivitas sekolah. Yang pertama, kewarganegaraan termasuk kedudukan yang berkaitan dengan hukum yang sah.
Related PapersPendidikan Kewarganegaraan merupakan salah satu mata pelajaran di persekolahan yang mempunyai kontribusi penting dalam membentuk dan mewujudkan warganegara yang cerdas seperti diamanatkan dalam UUD 1945, yaitu smart and good citizenship. Hal ini diperkuat oleh visi Pendidikan Nasional UU tahun 2003 bahwa aspek kepribadian warganegara yang perlu dikembangkan adalah menjadi manusia yang berkualitas sehingga mampu dan proaktif menjawab tantangan pembelajaran yang perlu dikembangkan adalah “critical thinking oriented and problem solving oriented modes” CCE1992-2000. Sebab, siswa yang hanya menguasai konsep saja tanpa disertai dengan kemampuan berpikir kritis terkadang sulit mengkomunikasikan ilmunya kepada orang lain dan mengaplikasikan pengetahuannya dalam kehidupan sehari-hari. Saat ini secara adaptif di Indonesia dikembangkan model praktik belajar kewarganegaraan kami bangsa Indonesia atau biasa disebut Project Citizen yang di dalamnya terdapat portofolio hasil belajar siswa. Project citizen merupakan satu instructional treatment yang berbasis masalah untuk mengembangkan pengetahuan, kecakapan, dan watak kewarganegaraan demokratis yang memungkinkan dan mendorong keikutsertaan dalam pemerintahan dan masyarakat sipil. Tujuan Project citizen adalah untuk memotivasi dan memberdayakan para siswa dalam menggunakan hak dan tanggung jawab kewarganegaraan yang demokratis melalui penelitian yang intensif mengenai masalah kebijakan publik di sekolah atau di masyarakat tempat mereka ini bertujuan untuk mengetahui penerapan materi pendidikan global pada mata pelajaran PPKn di sekolah menengah atas berbasis model project citizens. Penelitian ini merupakan penelitian deskriptif dengan pendekatan kualitatif dan metode studi kasus subjek penelitian ini adalah materi pendidikan global pada mata pelajaran PPKn di SMA berbasis model project citizens. Pengumpulan data dilakukan dengan wawancara, dokumentasi dan observasi secara langsung dengan terlibat menjadi pendidik. Hasil penelitian menunjukkan bahwa model project citizen dapat menumbukan wawasan global dalam memahami isu-isu global peserta didik. Penerapan model pembelajaran project citizen dikembangkan dalam beberapa kriteria yang berorientasi pada pendidikan global. Pendidikan global berbasis model pembelajaran project citizen dapat menjadi media dalam mentrasformasikan nilai-nilai dasar Ideologi Pancasila generasi muda yang berwawasan globalSetiap masyarakat di belahan bumi manapun sangat mendambakan generasi mudanya dipersiapkan untuk menjadi warganegara yang baik dan dapat berpartisipasi dalam kehidupan masyarakat dan negaranya. Keinginan tersebut lebih tepat disebut sebagai perhatian yang terus tumbuh, terutama dalam masyarakat demokratis. Banyak bukti yang menunjukkan bahwa tak satupun negara, termasuk Indonesia, telah mencapai tingkat pemahaman dan penerimaan terhadap hak-hak dan tanggung jawab di antara keseluruhan warganegara untuk mendukung kehidupan demokrasi konstitusional. Untuk kepentingan itu maka dikembangkan Citizenship Education atau Pendidikan Kewarganegaraan. Pasal 37 ayat 2 UU No. 20 Tahun 2003 tentang Sistem Pendidikan Nasional menyatakan bahwa Kurikulum Pendidikan wajib memuat Pendidikan Agama, Pendidikan Kewarganegaraan, dan Bahasa. Tiga mata pelajaran wajib ini mengisyaratkan tujuan membangun kebangsaan yang religius. Pasal ini menempatkan Pendidikan Kewarganegaraan sebagai salah satu mata pelajaran yang penting dan strategis disamping Pendidikan Agama dan Bahasa. Pasal tersebut dengan jelas dan tegas mengamanatkan dan mewajibkan Pendidikan Kewarganegaraan harus masuk kurikulum di setiap jenjang dan jenis pendidikan dari sekolah dasar hingga perguruan DASAR PENDIDIKAN KEWARGANEGARAAN SEKOLAH DASAR Pendidikan kewarganegaraan merupakan salah satu mata pelajaran yang sangat penting untuk diajarkan pada jenjang sekolah dasar, karena pendidikan kewarganegaraan merupakan salah satu pelajaran yang berkaitan langsung dengan kehidupan bermasyarakat. Oleh karena itu, para pelaku pendidikan dalam memberikan pelajaran pendidikan kewarganegaraan harus memiliki pengetahuan tentang konsep-konsep dasar pendidikan kewarganegaraan di sekolah dasar. Buku ini membahas tentang konsep-konsep dasar Pendidikan Kewarganegaraan di Sekolah Dasar yang terdiri dari pokok bahasan, antara lain 1. Konsep dan prinsip Pendidikan Kewarganegaraan, 2. Paradigma pendidikan kewarganegaraan, 3. Perbandingan pendidikan kewarganegaraan di berbagai negara, 4. Perkembangan pendidikan kewarganegaraan di indonesia, 5. Pembelajaran pendidikan kewarganegaraan sekolah dasar. Buku ini disajikan secara sistematis dan sederhana dengan tujuan agar pembaca mudah memahami pembahasan yang telah disajikan dalam setiap bab. Oleh karena itu, buku ini sangat sesuai dijadikan referensi bagi praktisi maupun akademisi terutama dilingkungan perguruan tinggi.Berbagiitu indah, mari kita bersama gunakan fasilitas internet dengan menebar kasih sayang Postingan. di perguruan tinggi. istilah pendidikan kewarganegaraan memiliki kesamaan dengan istilah Pendidikan Kewargaan , Civic (istilah paling tua pada tahun 1886) , Civic Education, C itizenship , Citizenship Education (digunakan di USA pada tahun 1. IntroductionIn 1999, the International Association for the Evaluation of Educational Achievement IEA conducted the second international assessment of civic education “responding to the expressed need of many countries for empirical data as they began to rethink their civic education programs in the early 1990s transitions” [1]. This IEA Civic Education Study involved 28 countries and 90,000 students. A decade later, the IEA conducted the third international assessment of civic education, this time involving 38 countries and 120,000 students [2]. The rationale of this study was not the transitions that had characterized the post-cold War world in the 1990s but rather the uncertainties and calamites that followed the destruction of the World Trade Centre in New York on 11 September 2001 and the related terrorist activities in places such as Bali, London and Madrid that followed in quick succession after 2001. Thus the last decade of the twentieth century and the first decade of the twenty first century witnessed global events that placed a spotlight on civic and citizenship education and its role in a changing world. It is important to understand these changing contexts. One pervasive change that has been identified is related to global economic integration and in particular the growth and influence of technology in the global economy. Often referred to as “globalization”, this increasing integration has highlighted the interdependence of the world economy and the extent to which technology has enhanced this interdependence. For example, individuals across the globe continue to be located in a common geographic space such as China or Germany or the United States of America. Yet increasingly what happens in one society influences what happens in another. The manufacture of clothes in China impacts on prices and work opportunities for citizens in the United States, the financial crisis of 2008 could not be contained in a single geographic space and prices for drugs determined in Western nations impact on access to these drugs by people in developing countries. Yet globalization is not only economic in nature. Local cultures can also be challenged by technology enhanced processes that lead to more globalized music, fashion and food. These in turn may have economic impacts on local societies. As Mok [3] has pointed out “no matter how we assess the impact of globalization, it is undeniable that contemporary societies are not entirely immune from the prominent global forces”.While the forces of globalization have been unmistakable across the international landscape, there have also been forces that have highlighted the continuing and significant role of individual nations. Kennedy [4] pointed to three broad elements that account for the continuing strength of nation states—the existence of states with strong governance structures, the increasing emphasis on national security in the light of 9/11 and the responses to the 2008 financial crisis that witnessed considerable intervention on the part of national governments. He has referred to these phenomena as a kind of “neo-statism” signaling the ongoing role of nation states even in an increasingly globalized world. As Keating [5] commented, “the nation-state model continues to have a grip on the intellectual imagination and its normative elements survive in much writing about politics”. The reason for this is not so much a romantic attachment to the nation state. Rather, it is because the everyday lives of citizens continue to be influenced by the decisions of national government whether they are concerned with new financial regulations, new state security arrangements or the variety of laws that cover such areas as transport, housing and education. Kennedy [4] has also pointed to the influence of non-state actors on the international landscape and the need for civic and citizenship education to take account of these. Such actors have been responsible for the ongoing terrorism that has characterized much of the 21st century. The most well known is perhaps Al Qaeda but there are many more smaller groups and sometimes individuals who take it on themselves to threaten citizens directly through the destruction of buildings, and other public infrastructure. While such non state actors have come to characterize the current century they have their origins in much earlier times whenever individuals took action against governments and their follow citizens. Kennedy [4] has commented on the need to make such groups the focus of citizenship education “since understanding such individuals and groups, knowing how to respond to them and knowing how to respond to state actions against them should be part and parcel of any citizenship education program. Citizens must be equipped to handle complex ideas and ideologies if they are to contribute to their societies in a constructive way—traditional approaches to citizenship education may not always achieve this end”.The kind of changes referred to above may be described in different ways—they may be characterized as economic, social or political or a combination of all of these. Yet what they achieve together are changes to the conditions of citizenship. In these new contexts, citizenship is no longer stable, no longer able to rely on a single national space or remain sheltered from decisions made thousands of kilometers away. A key issued raised by these phenomena is how to prepare citizens to negotiate and respond to these new contexts. What is the role of civic and citizenship education as both a component of the school curriculum and a social construct designed to serve the needs of changing nation states? The purpose of this paper is to review the status of civic and citizenship education across different regions and within specific national jurisdictions in order to see what changes, if any, have taken place over the past two decades in response to changes in the macro environment. It will do so by drawing on both theoretical and empirical analyses to address the following issuesHow do theoretical isssues construct civic education?How is content in civic education regarded across nations?How do education systems make provision for civic education?How is civic learning best facilitated and what are the implications for the school curriculum? 2. Theoretical Issues and Civic EducationThere are many different ways in which to examine the theoretical issues influencing civic education. In this section, it will be shown how civic and citizenship education and broader conceptions of citizenship can be related. It will also be shown how conceptions of civic and citizenship education itself often serve to construct the school subject in a particular way. Both ways of looking at civic and citizenship education have implications for it as a discipline of and citizenship education can be a policy initiated by a government, a program run in a school, a lesson taught by a teacher or an activity experienced by a student. The common element across these different ways of thinking about civic education is the focus on a special aspect of the school curriculum—the aspect that is specifically concerned with the education of young people to become citizens of the future. Torney-Purta et al. [1] made the point “that civic education content is often less codified and less formalized compared to other subjects” and this was “related to the uncertainty in conceptualizing civic education knowledge due to the amalgamated disciplinary base of the subject and teachers’ varied subject matter backgrounds”. As a part of the school curriculum, therefore, civic education is unlike traditional subjects such as Mathematics, Language or History. That is, it is not so much about mastering a specific body of knowledge or skills—although civic and citizenship education can be knowledge or skills oriented. Rather, it is primarily about understanding the political processes that regulate the daily lives of individuals in any society. This is a key point to understand when considering civic and citizenship education because, as shown above, it is these very processes that have been transformed over the past two decades. Table 1 summarizes the complex debates that highlight the transformations that have taken place in recent times. The transformations challenge the traditional argument that citizenship is primarily a legal status conferred by one country on the people who live within its borders. This argument is historically located. The history of Europe and North America from the late eighteenth century up to and including the early twentieth century very much focused on the development of individual nations that provided special privileges for their citizens—for example, the right to vote in elections, the right to stand for election, the right to receive economic and social benefits from the government. Citizens are still privileged within the borders of their nations and their rights are guaranteed within these geographic spaces. Yet they must now look beyond borders because the daily lives of citizens can be as much influenced by forces outside those borders as from within. Table 1. Changing and conflicting conceptions of citizenship. Table 1. Changing and conflicting conceptions of citizenship. Key ideas on citizenshipAuthorIndividual nations have been the building blocks on which notions of citizenship have been built. Individuals within nations are seen to share common bonds that bring them together to create a distinctive groupSee [6,7] on this point The increased economic interaction of nations in the late twentieth century has meant that there is greater interdependence among nations. This interdependence is sometimes referred to as “globalization”. Since citizens now depend not only on their own nation but others as well, ideas have developed that citizenship itself should be broader than a single nationOhmae[8] has written about “the end of the nation state” Reid, Gill & Sears [9] have examined the impact of globalization on civic educationAltman [10] has written about the apparently diminishing impact of globalization’ in the light of the renewed strength of nation states following the 2008 financial crisisTo try and provide a different perspective on citizenship there has been discussion, some people have talked about “global citizenship” or “cosmopolitanism”. The idea has been to suggest a broader understanding of citizenship linked to international rather than national frameworks of involvement and engagement[11,12] The best example of looking beyond borders can be seen in the European Union that has since its beginning promoted the idea of European citizenship. To be a citizen of Europe one must first be a citizen of a member nation. Thus within the European Union, individuals have “two citizenships” the traditional national citizenship and European citizenship. This is an important point because it means that one citizenship does not cancel out the other but rather one citizenship complements the other. European citizenship also confers additional rights, for example the right to travel across borders of member countries and the right to vote in European elections. The link between citizenship and rights is therefore maintained in this dual citizenship context. The European Union example supports the idea that in these new times, citizenship is a more complex issue that it has been in the past and there should be new ways of thinking about it to meet new developments and issues. If the idea of citizenship is changing, it follows that ideas about civic and citizenship education should also be changing. Yet such changes are by no means simple. Civic and citizenship education has been embedded in traditional theoretical frameworks that assume it is linked to the needs of individual nations. This is made more complex because there is no single overarching theory—but multiple theories. Civic republicanism, for example, assumes “that individuals come together around common purposes, common values and a common good. The responsibility of citizenship, therefore, is to contribute actively to the “common-wealth” and to recognize at times that individual interests might need to be subjugated to a higher common good” [13]. In opposition to this view is a more full blown liberalism that leads to “a citizenship premised on individual rights giving priority to the interests of individuals rather than the interests of larger groups to which individuals belong. Freedom in all spheres of activity is the catch cry of liberal citizenshi [14]. There are different versions of this liberal conception of citizenship. Howard and Patten [15], for example, refer to neo-liberal discourses that influence civic education pointing to dissolution of restrictions within society that prevent individuals from making their own way in the social and economic spheres of activity. The neo-liberal citizen is a self regulating individual without the need for any government support at all and on whom there are no restrictions. Then there is Rawl’s [16] version of political liberalism that argues for restrictions on the role of the state on what should and should not be taught as part of civic education in a pluralistic society. In Rawl’s view there should be no single ideology guiding civic education apart from shared political values necessary for the maintenance of a democratic society. This is the only way to protect religious pluralism that for Rawls lies outside the political realm. While these theoretical frameworks contain major differences that are philosophical and ideological in nature, they share one thing in common. They have been applied to civic and citizenship education on the assumption that it is embedded within individual nations. This reflects the historic nation building role of civic and citizenship education but it does not take into account the changing nature of citizenship in a post-modern world. New formulations based on global conceptions of citizenship are making their presence felt [9,17,18] and these provide alternative narratives for citizenship. But the older theoretical frameworks continue to hold sway. Howard and Patten [15], for example, identified neo-liberal influences on recent civic education curriculum in Australia. Lockyer [19] identified strands of both liberalism and civic republicanism in the United Kingdom’s Citizenship curriculum. The focus on human rights in the civic and citizenship education curriculum of many countries is a reflection of commitments to classical liberalism and individual freedom. While there are many international policy instruments that seek to safeguard these rights, the best protections and indeed the worst abuses come from within the borders of nation states. The older theoretical frames have not disappeared. In their different ways they continue to exert a nation building influence alongside the newer narratives that provide a broader framework in which to locate citizens’ needs and interests. A good example of how the old and the new sit side by side can be seen in the Asia Pacific region. Kennedy [13] showed that while liberalizing tendencies had powerfully affected economic growth and development in many Asian countries and that this in turn had led to widespread curriculum reform, that the same liberal tendencies had not been applied to the civic education curriculum. As Kennedy [13] pointed out “there is not a single case represented where the nation state has eased its grip on citizenship education as a major means of inducting young citizens into the culture and values of the nation state itself. This is as true for the United States as it is for the People’s Republic of China, for Australia as it is for Malaysia, for New Zealand as it is for Pakistan”. There can thus be both recognition of the powerful influence of globalizing forces and a deliberate intention to resist such forces in key aspects of a nation’s life. Steiner-Khamsi & Stolpe [20] have demonstrated this same process with particular reference to economic and social development in Mongolia. Here there has been both incorporation of global influences and considerable local agency to resist those influences where local values were seen to be of greater priority. This dual approach to globalization suggests that national and global narratives relating to citizenship will continue to exist side by side rather than one being replaced by the other. It should not, therefore, be assumed that globalization and global citizenship go hand in hand. Indeed the Asian cases demonstrate the opposite—the stronger the processes of globalization the more resistant nation states may be in protecting their future final theoretical issue concerned with civic education relevant to the current theme is the tendency to regard the so called “content” of civic education as more process than specific subject matter. Table 2 shows how different approaches to the assessment of civic education highlight process over content. It is not that civic knowledge is absent altogether from these examples see the Australian example but on balance, there is more emphasis on processes than content. This may reflect the fact that in three of the four cases, the assessments apply across countries so the selection of specific content would be very difficult, especially in the international assessments that can apply to over thirty countries. Yet even in the Australian example that does have a specific knowledge domain, the way in which the specific assessment domains are described make it clear that the knowledge being referred to here is almost exclusively national political knowledge. This point is highlighted in Table 3 that compares the key performance measures for Australian students in Year 6 and Year 10. The main point to note about these measures is that they are almost exclusively focused on the national political system and national political institutions. There is one exception, and that is the reference to “analyzing Australia’s role as a nation in the global community”. This may not necessarily be a reference to the impact of globalization or to the changing nature of citizenship in a global context. Rather, it is more likely to focus on the development of Australia in various regional and international contexts as a member of the Asia Pacific Education Community and the United Nations. This simply reinforces the point that civic knowledge in these global times is more likely to be constructed as local or at best national. The example used here is from Australia, but it is likely to reflect priorities elsewhere as well. It is national rather than global priorities that continue to dominate civic education. At times, as shown in Table 2, the focus may not even be on knowledge at all, but on processes of participation and engagement. Table 2. Process approaches to content in civic education. Table 2. Process approaches to content in civic education. Jurisdiction/PurposeDomainsAustralia National Assessment Program—Civics and Citizenship Education Year 6 Assessment 2004 [21]Civics Knowledge and Understanding of Civic Institutions and ProcessesCitizenship Dispositions &Skills for ParticipationEuropean Union survey of citizenship education [22]Political LiteracyAttitudes/ValuesActive ParticipationSecond IEA Civic Education Study [1]Democracy/CitizenshipInternational RelationsSocial Cohesion/DiversityInternational Civic and Citizenship Study [2]Civic Society & SystemsCivic PrinciplesCivic ParticipationCivic Identities Table 3. Key performance measures in the civic knowledge domain the Australian example [21]. Table 3. Key performance measures in the civic knowledge domain the Australian example [21]. Civic Knowledge and Understanding of Civic InstitutionsYear 6Year Recognize key features of Australian Recognise that perspectives on Australian democratic ideas and civic institutions vary and change over Describe the development of Australian self-government and Understand the ways in which the Australian Constitution impacts on the lives of Australian Outline the roles of political and civic institutions in Understand the role of law-making and governance in Australia’s democratic Understand the purposes and processes of creating and changing rules and Understand the rights and responsibilities of citizens in a range of Identify the rights and responsibilities of citizens in Australia’s Analyse how Australia’s ethnic and cultural diversity contribute to Australian democracy, identity and social Recognise that Australia is a pluralist society with citizens of diverse ethnic origins and cultural Analyse Australia’s role as a nation in the global community What can be concluded from this exploration of theoretical issues influencing civic education? First, it has to be recognized that civic and citizenship education has been developed as a strategy used across nations to support the values, structures and priorities of individual nations. Many of the theoretical frameworks referred to above take this as a given in their analyses of citizenship and the various forms it might take within the nation state. Yet citizenship within nation states is no longer something that can be treated in isolation from the broader global environment. Second, there are multiple forces within this environment that often seem to be pulling in different directions. Globalization has tended to locate influence and power outside of nation states but more recent concerns for national security and global financial stability have increased the influence of national governments. Third, traditionally there has been a focus in civic and citizenship education on processes civic engagement and participation and any focus on civic knowledge has been on national political knowledge structures rather than on knowledge that would help students understand global processes, structures and systems. In the remainder of this paper it will be important to keep these points in mind because they relate to key issues that will be discussed and they will be reviewed again towards the end of the paper. 3. The Content of Civic Education—A Cross National PerspectiveGiven the different theoretical frameworks in which civic and citizenship education might be developed, it is important to examine the curriculum itself to see how different countries prioritize specific content for civic education. It is possible to gain an overview of civic education content because of the recently completed International Civics and Citizenship Study [2] that asked the 38 participating countries to provide data on the priorities for civic education. The responses have been summarized in Figure 1. Figure 1. Curriculum emphases for civic education identified by education systems participating in the international civic and citizenship study countries [2]. Figure 1. Curriculum emphases for civic education identified by education systems participating in the international civic and citizenship study countries [2]. The first point to note is that while there is some similarities in terms of emphases, there is no common core of civic knowledge that can be identified across participating education systems. There is only one topic that 80% of countries identified as a major emphasis, “Legal Systems and Courts”. “Understanding Different Cultures and Ethnic Groups” was a major emphasis in over 70% of countries. These were followed by “Human Rights” the “Environment” and “Parliament and Government Systems” After these topics there is much less agreement on what represents major emphases across the thirty eight countries. Perhaps more importantly, however, topics that might reflect a more international or global perspective—“The Global Community and International Organizations” and “Regional Institutions and Organizations”—are seen as major emphases in civic education for less than 30% of the participating countries. The same topics do not feature at all in and 21% of countries respectively. Other topics such as “Human Rights” and the “Environment” may well have global dimensions, but the other topics where there is a major emphasis appear to be more related to local civic organizations or issues. Based on this analysis, therefore, it seems that local rather than global perspectives continue to dominate the civic education curriculum suggesting that the preparation of future citizens continues to be focused on national citizenship. This analysis supports the trend shown in Table 3 referring specifically to the case of Australia where the focus of the civic component of the national civic assessment was also on national and local political systems. Another perspective on the importance of national priorities in civic and citizenship education can be seen from countries’ endorsement of the importance of developing a sense of national identity and allegiance. 47% of countries indicated that this was a major emphasis in terms of civic processes emphasized in civic education, 42% of countries indicated there was some emphasis on it and 11% of countries indicated there was no emphasis on it [2]. This is not to say that there are not other persepctivres included in national curriculum or that if the question had been asked about global persepctives that it may not have received a positive response. For example, in the United Kingdom’s Citizenship curriculum for students to be assessed at Level 6 and above, they must be able to “show understanding of interdependence, describing interconnections between people and their actions in the UK, Europe and the wider world” [23]. Yet national perspectives remain dominant in civic education even where there may be a recognition that students should look beyond the borders of their respective it is also possible to examine the way teachers participating in the ICCS viewed the importance of civic content. Table 4 shows content areas and teachers’ responses to them. Table 4. Teachers’ perceptions of important aims for civic education. Table 4. Teachers’ perceptions of important aims for civic education. Aims for civic educationPercentages of teachers considering these aims for civic education importantn = 30 countriesInternational Average %Range %Promoting knowledge of social, political and civic institutions3316–57Promoting respect for and safeguard of the environment4122–61Promoting the capacity to defend one’s own point of view204–8Developing students’ skills and competencies in conflict resolution4121–73Promoting knowledge of citizens’ rights and responsibilities6037–73Promoting students’ participation in the local community162–40Promoting students’ critical and independent thinking5219–84Promoting students’ participation in school life199–5Supporting the development of effective strategies for the fight against racism and xenophobia101–31Preparing students for future political participation71–19 From the perspective of teachers in 30 countries, the top four aims of civic education are “Promoting knowledge of citizens” rights and responsibilities 60%, “Promoting students’ critical and independent thinking” 52% and “Promoting respect for and safeguard of the environment”/“Developing students skills and competencies in conflict resolution” 41% each. Given that these were forced category choices, teachers did not get the opportunity to express their views about global citizenship or global issues. Nevertheless, the focus of these top four aims clearly show that civic and citizenship education in these different national contexts emphasise the social and the personal aspects of the subject. It seems that for teachers, equipping individual students with skills that will help them negotiate a complex and uncertain world, is a priority. It is of interest to note that “Promoting knowledge of social, political and civic institutions” rates relatively poorly 33% of teachers on average regard it is important in at least one country the figure is as low as 16% of teachers. Lower still is any focus on “Preparing students for future political participation” with an international average of only 7% of teachers seeing it as important. This suggests that the political roles of citizens are not regarded as important by teachers, particularly when compared to the personal and social roles that students can play as future citizens. Finally, it can be seen that processes rather than specific content dominate civic education. Yet how are these aims realized in the actual curriculum? This issue will be addressed in the following section. 4. Curriculum Structures for Civic EducationThe organization of the school curriculum highlights and what is considered valued knowledge for young people. It would be likely across countries to find that Mathematics, Science and mother tongue Language will be separate subjects with specific time allocations. In addition, perhaps History and Geography or some integrated version such as Social Studies will also find a similar place. Then there may also be room for Physical Education, Art, Music and Health Education. Where does Civic Education fit alongside these formal subjects in the school curriculum?Kennedy [14] proposed a framework for considering the curriculum status of civic education. It highlighted four possible modes of delivery as a single subject, taught through other subjects such as History and Geography, integrated across all subjects or as an extra curricular activity. In a subsequent study, Fairbrother and Kennedy [24] showed students who experienced Civic Education as a separate subject did produce higher scores on civic learning outcome measures and the differences were statistically significantly different from those of students who experienced Civic Education in other modes. Yet the mode of curriculum delivery did not account for a significant proportion of the variance in students’ learning outcomes. Other factors need to be identified that impact on the recent ICCS [2] Table 2 the curriculum delivery modes themselves were re-categorized and expanded from Kennedy’s [14] four to eight Specific subject compulsory or optional;Integrated into several subjects;Cross curricular;Assemblies and special events;Extra- curricular activities;Classroom experience/ethos; interesting point to note about participating countries’ responses to these curriculum delivery categories is that apart from compulsory/optional choice they were not seen to be mutually exclusive. Thus all countries indicating Civic Education was a compulsory single subject representing 45% of the total number of countries also indicated other curriculum delivery modes were used as well. For example, Chinese Taipei selected “compulsory specific subject”, “cross curricular”, “assemblies and special events”, “extra-curricular activities” and “classroom experiences/ethos” whereas Estonia selected “compulsory specific subject”, “integrated into several subjects” and “cross curricula”. There is, therefore, not a single curriculum delivery mode for civic education but multiple modes. This is also true where Civic Education is not a single subject see, for example, Hong Kong, Finland and Denmark [2] Table 2. A key point that arises from this phenomenon is to consider what it means for Civic Education as a observation to make on this issue is that the new curriclum delivery categories addded by the ICCS were towards the informal civic learning end of the curriculum. This suggests that while there may be formal curriuclum content to be covered for example 45% of countries indicated Civic Education was a “compulsory specific subject” and 81% indicated it was “integrated into several subjects” there were also aspects of Civic Ecuation that fell outside of these subject boundaries into more informal activities for example assemblies, extra curricular activities and classroom ethos. This makes Civic Education somewhat exceptional since its boundaries are so flexible. It also raises the important question of civic learning and how this can best be facilitated for curriuclum exepriences that extend beyond the formal curriuclum. . This issue will be taken up in the following section. 5. Facilitating Civic Learning and the Implications for the School CurriculumResearchers on civic learning—including those responsible for the ICCS—have tended to focus on those structural variables that influence student learning—socioeconomic status, gender, immigrant status, etc. These are always telling and are important control variables, but the issue of interest to teachers is what can be done to promote civic learning both within classrooms and beyond them into schools and the community. The responses in the research literature tend to suggest that there are instructional strategies and school activities that do support student’s civic learning. An “open classroom climate” within classrooms and the use of School Parliaments involving students are two processes that have been found to be positively related to students’ civic learning [1]. These are things that teachers and schools can well manage and go beyond the structural and demographic characteristics of students. There are other strategies that were identified in the context of the IEA Civic education study [1]. Turney-Purta and Barber, [25] reported that reading newspapers is a moderate predictor of students’ likelihood to vote βs across their European sample were ≥ 10, ≤ 21. Torney-Purta et al [1], reported that the frequency of watching TV and news amongst the international sample was also a moderate predictor of students’ likelihood to vote in the future β = 13. These could be activities that take place out of school. Yet given that there are differential levels of trust in the media across countries they could equally well take place within school if they were developed as instructional and learning activities. Husfeldt, Barber and Torney-Purta [26] developed a new Trust in Media Scale but have also raised the question of whether students are able to apply critical skills to the task. Amadeo, Torney-Purta and Barber [27] have shown the positive relationship between media consumption and both students’ civic knowledge and their attitude to future civic engagement. Torney-Purta and Barber [25] have pointed out “school-based programs that introduce students to newspapers and foster skills in interpreting political information may be of value”. This may be a particularly important thing to do for students whose home environments do not provide them with these informal learning opportunities. These are more examples of how schools and teachers can make a difference to civic consideration of civic learning raises an important question about the nature of civic and citizenship education as a “discipline”. It is concerned with both “content” and “pedagogy”, and it is not enough to consider either in isolation. The influential report, The Civic Mission of Schools [28,29] made this point very strongly. The report argued that while civic knowledge is an essential part of any civic education, it cannot be delivered in such a way as to alienate students or lead them to become disengaged from learning. The kind of teaching and learning strategies referred to above are as much a part of the discipline as the specific knowledge itself. Pedagogy and content must be integrated for civic education what needs to be learnt should be constructed in a learning environment that is at once relevant, meaningful and engaging to students. Because civic education, in liberal democracies at least, is about supporting democratic structures and systems, then teaching strategies need also to be democratic otherwise there will be a conflict between the content and the pedagogy. This is an important issue for the development of civic and citizenship education in the future. 6. ConclusionsThe many changes in the external environment have focused attention on civic and citizenship education over the past two decades. Many countries have responded to these changes by reinforcing the civic and citizenship education curriculum but there has been no standard approach internationally. Diversity rather than uniformity is the main characteristic of the civic curriculum. In terms of aims, teaching strategies and delivery mechanisms, there is considerable variability across countries. Successive international assessment studies have not isolated the variables that can account for successful civic learning. Rather, a combination of structural characteristics for example, socioeconomic status, gender and immigrant status combined with student focused instructional strategies and democratic decision making processes seem to be the most likely explanations for different levels of civic learning. 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